[Graeme]

A new solution for storing hydrogen fuel for alternative energy

Turning the 'hydrogen economy' concept into a reality, even on a small scale, has been a bumpy road, but scientists are developing a novel way to store hydrogen to smooth out the long-awaited transition away from fossil fuels. A new solid, stable material can pack in a large amount of hydrogen, according to recent research.

sciencedaily

[Graeme]

DOE supports hydrogen cars with $7 million for longer driving ranges

Hydrogen fuel-cell technology, it's still a California thing. At least, it is according to the US Department of Energy.

The DOE has announced the details of its latest round of funding for technology dedicated to advancing hydrogen fuel cell vehicle development, and almost all of the recipients were from the Golden State. The largest of the six projects that are slated to receive a combined $7 million in funding is from Pasadena-based Materia, which is getting $2 million to cut the cost of compressed hydrogen storage systems. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories and San Francisco-based Ardica are each receiving $1.2 million for their planned hydrogen storage system improvements, while $1 million will be doled out to Malibu-based HRL Laboratories. The DOE says such projects are "critical to the widespread commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies."

autoblog

Hydrogen Production Joint Venture Formed

Areva, Smart Energies through its subsidiary CETH2, and the ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) have formed a joint venture, Areva H2-Gen, to manufacture Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysers, which will enable hydrogen to be produced from water and electricity.

Initially intended for industrial applications, PEM electrolysis is now targeting the renewable energy storage market to supply service stations with hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles or to supply natural gas networks, the partners say.

Areva, Smart Energies and the French State, represented by the ADEME as operator of the Investissements d’Avenir (investments for the future) Program, will eventually hold equal stakes in the company, with the aim of making it a leading global player in the field of hydrogen production by electrolysis.

environmentalleader

[Graeme]

Japanese Government Bets The Farm On Fuel Cell Vehicles

But Toyota may have an ace up its sleeve: the Japanese government. According to Nikkei, Japan plans to become the frontrunner in promoting development and sales of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and it's going to achieve that goal in two ways:

By changing guidelines for fuel cell vehicles: By the end of the month, Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry will loosen regulations on fuel cell vehicles. Soon, FCV owners will be able to fill their hydrogen tanks to 875 atmospheres, substantially higher than the 700 atmospheres allowed under current law. The boost in capacity will allow fuel cell vehicles to travel 20 percent farther than they currently do.

By facilitating exports (and imports): Japan's government is hammering out details on new treaties that would make it easier for fuel cell vehicles to be imported from makers like Mercedes, but also exported from Japan to Europe and elsewhere. In particular, Japan is working to broker a deal by which countries would recognize safety tests performed in other countries, simplifying the process to get FCVs on the road.

thecarconnection

[hvacman]

875 atmospheres equals 12,858 PSI (pounds per square inch) pressure. Such a tank in an automobile in not conceivable.

I'm not a hydrogen fan at all, but 12,000 psi storage tanks are conceivable. Current-technology FCV H2 storage tanks work at between 350-700 atmospheres (5,000-10,000 psi). Even everyday CNG tanks, now used in all kinds of CNG vehicles, including school busses, store their gas at about 3,000-4,000 psi.

Of course, why anyone would conceive of using an inefficient, NG-based energy technology like hydrogen that requires such technological storage miracles, along with extremely expensive fuel-cell miracles, is beyond me. Li ion battery-based electric EV's and PHEV's are already proving themselves on the road how simple they can be to drive/own on an everyday basis, can be recharged nightly at home with no infrastructure changes and at a fraction of the per-mile cost of H2, and are increasingly demonstrating they have a order of magnitude simpler requirement for (relatively) fast DC charging refueling stations for long-distance travel than H2 fueling stations (Tesla Superchargers as an example).

[Graeme]

I am a fan of FCV. I think that the Japanese government's support of this tech is very significant. You'll be hearing a lot more about all aspects of this tech. For instance:

Inexpensive catalyst to produce oxygen and hydrogen from water

“Fuel cells coupled with solar hydrogen generators and/or water electrolyzers can provide clean power for mobile and stationary uses, while redox flow batteries are ideal for large-scale solar and wind electricity storage,” says Yan, Distinguished Professor of Engineering at UD.

Creating this suite of devices is a tall order, and Yan knows that success is achieved one small breakthrough at a time. He and his research group recently made one such breakthrough when they synthesized a nickel-based catalyst that can split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas. Nickel, which is cheap and abundant, is an attractive replacement for currently used precious metals.

“Cheap and efficient oxidative water splitting is an important piece of the big picture of electrochemical energy conversion because this reaction enables the use of water as an energy source,” Yan says. “But without a catalyst, water splitting is both slow and inefficient. The most successful candidates developed for water oxidation so far have been oxides of ruthenium or iridium, which are both scarce and expensive.”

The work is reported in a paper, “Efficient Water Oxidation Using Nanostructured α‑Nickel-Hydroxide as an Electrocatalyst,” published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS) online on April 25. It was also selected for coverage in JACS Spotlights, a feature aimed at making JACS research more accessible to the broader community.

scienceblog

And this:

Transforming hydrogen into liquid fuel using atmospheric CO2

Hydrogen is often touted as the fuel of the future. But because this gas is highly explosive, it must be stored and transported under pressure in specialized and expensive containers. Hydrogen therefore has issues in terms of safety, logistics, and profitability that could significantly limit its wider use. However, a solution might lie in research by EPFL scientists, who have developed a simple system based on two chemical reactions. The first reaction transforms hydrogen into formic acid, a liquid that is easy to store and less flammable than gasoline, while the second reaction does the reverse and restores the hydrogen. Another possible application of their technology would be to use atmospheric CO2 to synthesize a number of useful chemical products.

Gabor Laurenczy's team has already developed a process for transforming formic acid into hydrogen gas. The method was the subject of several articles, one of which appeared in Science, and it is currently under industrial development. But a complete and coherent system would also require the inverse process: transforming hydrogen into formic acid. This has now been achieved, completing the cycle, thanks to the financial support of EOS Holding. The scientists in Laurenczy's team have described the process in a Nature Communications article.

phys.org

[Graeme]

Clean Hydrogen Advances Amid Fuel Cell Technology Gains

Once relegated to the realm of science projects, hydrogen fuel cells are starting to displace fossil fuels as a means of powering cars, homes and businesses.

On June 10, in the latest addition to mainstream fuel-cell use, Hyundai Motor Co. will begin deliveries of a consumer SUV in Southern California. The technology is already producing electricity for the grid in Connecticut. AT&T Inc. is using fuel cells to power server farms and Wal-Mart Stores Inc. uses hydrogen-powered fork lifts. And later this summer FedEx Corp. will begin using hydrogen-powered cargo tractors at its Memphis air hub.

“This is the most exciting time for fuel cells in my career,” said Daniel Dedrick, head of hydrogen and combustion technologies at Sandia National Laboratories in Livermore, California. The hydrogen market “is starting to accelerate.”


“The shift to hydrogen is inevitable, and it’s happening faster than we expected,” said Amory Lovins, founder of the Rocky Mountain Institute, a non-profit clean energy research organization based in Snowmass, Colorado.

California is participating in an eight-state effort to get 3.3 million zero-emission cars on the road by 2025, powered by either fuel cells or batteries. Also participating are Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island and Vermont, which together account for 25 percent of all U.S. auto sales.

Some analysts are predicting steady if modest growth. Automakers may be selling 1.76 million fuel-cell vehicles a year worldwide by 2025, according to Deloitte Tohmastsu Consulting.

bloomberg

[Timo]

Cold water on FCVs.
http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean/?utm_source=Cleantechnica+News&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=06e6fd09e9-RSS_EMAIL_CAMPAIGN&utm_term=0_b9b83ee7eb-06e6fd09e9-331990589

If you have not yet been exposed to authoritative-looking green marketing for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles, you will be.

Here is a heads-up on some representative samples:

California Fuel Cell Partnership.

“The well-to-wheels reports show that hydrogen made from natural gas and used in a fuel cell vehicle reduces greenhouse gases (GHGs) by 55%-65% compared to gasoline used in a conventional vehicle, and by about 40% compared to gasoline in a hybrid engine.”

California Air Resources Board

“As zero emission vehicles (ZEVs), hydrogen fuel cells play a significant role in reducing California’s greenhouse gas and smog emissions. The California Air Resources Board’s most recent Advanced Clean Cars Program builds upon the ZEV Regulation in place since 1990, and rapidly increases numbers of ZEV technologies, such as hydrogen fuel cell and battery electric vehicles. By mid-century, 87% of cars on the road will need to be full ZEVs. This will place California on a path to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, a goal adopted by many nations and believed necessary to stabilize climate temperature.”

US Environmental Protection Agency

“Producing the hydrogen to power FCVs can generate GHGs, depending on the production method, but much less than that emitted by conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles.”

Toyota Motor Sales U.S.A, Inc.

“Be a part of the next revolution in sustainable mobility: The Toyota Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV). A driving experience that’s on par with a gasoline engine, but without any CO2 emissions.”

Hyundai Motor America, marketers of the Tucson Fuel Cell

“Well-to-wheel emissions for hydrogen vehicles sourced from natural gas are lower than battery electric vehicles, and less than half of equivalent gasoline vehicle emissions.”

Mercedes Benz, marketers of the B-Class F-Cell

“Mercedes-Benz is working hard to harness the power of the most abundant element in the known universe. In other words, zero-emission hydrogen power.”

“0.0 emissions that means it is invisible to the environment.”

American Honda Motor Co., Inc.

“And make no mistake—the FCX Clarity FCEV is an electric car. The fuel cell combines hydrogen with oxygen to make electricity. The electricity then powers the electric motor, which in turn propels the vehicle. Water is the only byproduct the FCX Clarity FCEV leaves behind.”

Any problem with these statements?

Yes.

They are categorically and unequivocally false.

There are no such environmental benefits attributable to hydrogen either now or in any foreseeable future economic reality. On the contrary, hydrogen is a gross threat to efforts to tackle emissions as a result of public policies based on a false environmental premise and by grossly misleading advertising combined with incentives targeting consumers most at risk of deception by messaging citing the alleviation of environmental concerns as a value proposition.

[Graeme]

So we have to find another way to make hydrogen apart from using ng. Simple really.

DOE to award up to $4.6M for innovations in fuel cell and hydrogen fuel technologies

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Fuel Cell Technologies Office (FCTO) issued a funding opportunity announcement for up to $4.6 million for 12–24 month projects with industry and academia (DE-FOA-0000966) in support of innovations in fuel cell and hydrogen fuel technologies. (Earlier post.)

The FCTO Incubator Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) is intended to identify potentially impactful technologies that are not already addressed in FCTO’s strategic plan or project portfolio. The FOA is open to any and all impactful ideas which will significantly advance the mission of the FCTO and that are relevant to its Multi-Year Program Plan (MYPP); however, specific areas of interest include:

Platinum Group Metal (PGM)-free catalysts and membrane electrode assemblies (TRL 2- 4). DOE is inviting applications for novel cathode Platinum Group Metal (PGM)-free catalysts for the oxygen reaction and PGM-free cathode membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) for low-temperature and high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs).

For alkaline membrane fuel cells (AMFCs), the development of innovative PGM-free anode catalysts for the hydrogen oxidation reaction, PGM-free cathode catalysts for the oxygen reaction and PGM-free MEAs are of interest. Cathode PGM-free catalyst approaches should exclude the development of carbon-nitrogen complex based catalysts.

Fuel cell–based electrochemical conversion devices for stationary energy storage (TRL 2- 5). Approaches of interest include the development of innovative polymer electrolyte, alkaline membrane electrolyte and solid oxide electrolyte based unitized reversible fuel cells, as well as regenerative flow cells/flow batteries that could address renewable energy intermittency in an efficient and cost-effective manner.

Completely innovative hydrogen production and delivery technologies to reach the DOE cost goal of $2-$4/kg of hydrogen (produced and dispensed but untaxed) (TRL 2-5). Applications are invited for novel approaches to hydrogen production through renewable pathways such as thermochemical conversion of biomass-derived feedstocks, and direct solar water splitting (at semi-central or central scale production). Innovative materials, components, and systems are needed to establish the technical and cost feasibility for hydrogen delivery. These include forecourt technologies (e.g., compressors, storage vessels, hoses, meters, dispensers, etc.) for 700 bar dispensing and 875 bar or greater forecourt storage, as well as next generation technologies for hydrogen transmission and distribution.

Breakthrough, reversible hydrogen storage materials that operate at hydrogen pressures of 350 bar or less (TRL 2-5). Applications are invited for completely novel materials-based approaches, not previously supported through the program, to meet the onboard light-duty vehicle storage system target of 40 grams of hydrogen per liter system volume at operating pressures of 350 bar or less. Consideration must also be given to the system mass, cost and refill time for proposed concepts as compared with DOE system targets.

Hydrogen infrastructure (TRL 9-10). Manufacturing solutions for low-cost, standardized skid-mounted hydrogen fueling stations; and business models/financial approaches to address infrastructure costs (e.g., including soft costs) are of interest.

greencarcongress

[Graeme]

Cheaper, Better Hydrogen Fuel On The Way—We Hope

While most people can agree that electric and hybrid cars are a good idea, they haven’t taken off the way many people would expect, largely due to their price (I guess saving money on gasoline doesn’t take the edge off sticker shock). Solar-powered cars are another eco-friendly idea that seems poised to take off, though they might suffer the same setbacks as electric cars. Many scientists think that the real breakthrough in eco-fuels will be hydrogen, and despite previous advances in converting solar energy to hydrogen, it seems that the development of hydrogen-powered cars has largely stalled out — until now. Researchers at the UK’s Science and Technology Facilities Council have made a discovery that stands to revolutionize the use of hydrogen as fuel. Their secret? Ammonia.

giantfreakinrobot

[Graeme]

Toyota’s man in America says hydrogen is the future but he still drives an SUV

oyota, which pioneered gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles with the Prius nearly two decades ago, is making its next big bet on hydrogen fuel cells. It plans to put its first fuel-cell car, the Toyota FCV, on the road next year.
+
That vision contrasts sharply with that of Tesla, which is pushing purely electric vehicles like its Model S. Tesla CEO Elon Musk has said, “Fuel cell is so bullshit.”
+
Toyota Manufacturing’s North American CEO Osamu Nagata was asked about Musk’s view here at the Aspen Ideas Festival. “Before making comment, I just want to tell you that I like the Model S,” he said diplomatically, drawing laughter from the crowd.
+
Nagata declined to strike back at Musk but defended Toyota’s view that hydrogen will power cars of the future. “For shorter travel, like in a city, EV may have an advantage,” he said, using the abbreviation for electric vehicles. But he said hydrogen would prove more practical for longer travel—though it will take a while. “In the case of fuel cell, we spent more than 20 years to realize our dream,” Nagata said, noting it could take another 20 years for hydrogen to win out.
+
He summed up the options this way: “Gas-powered hybrid is still the most reliable and realistic solution. Hydrogen vehicles require another decade or two decades to become more popular. And battery technology requires another round of innovation to improve their range.”

quartz

[hvacman]

He summed up the options this way: “Gas-powered hybrid is still the most reliable and realistic solution. Hydrogen vehicles require another decade or two decades to become more popular. And battery technology requires another round of innovation to improve their range.”

First make ammonia, then store it in tanks, pump it into cars, then crack it back down to N2 and H2 - oh, nothing can go wrong when driving around with a big tank of ammonia under your seat.

Holy Toledo - The reason that Freon originally was invented was to find a refrigerant that was a little (no, a LOT) safer than ammonia. Other than it is flammable, toxic, a caustic, and it will require even more input energy to make ammonia per usable kG of H2 than to just make H2 and compress it, I don't see a problem.

Ammonia...this shows how desperate the hydrogen FCV advocates are to try to find SOME way to make it viable.

[Graeme]

Hydrogen breakthrough could be a game-changer for the future of car fuels

Ammonia can be stored on-board in vehicles at low pressures in conformable plastic tanks. Meanwhile on the forecourts, the infrastructure technology for ammonia is as straightforward as that for liquid petroleum gas (LPG).


Ammonia is already one of the most transported bulk chemicals worldwide. It is ammonia that is the feedstock for the fertilisers that enable the production of almost half the world’s food. Increasing ammonia production is technologically straightforward and there is no obvious reason why this existing infrastructure cannot be extended so that ammonia not only feeds but powers the planet.

stfc

NREL To Fuel Cell EV Critics: La-La-La-La-La

People are talking about the downside of fuel cell electric vehicles, but the folks at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) aren’t listening. Just last week, NREL inked a major deal with GM to partner on a new research program aimed at reducing the cost of fuel cells for electric vehicles.

NREL Meets GM On Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

The NREL-GM fuel cell partnership covers foundational research from two angles.

One is materials research, and in that regard the high cost of platinum catalysts for fuel cells is going to get a lot of attention. Improving power density is another area of focus.

Picking apart the impact of contaminants on fuel cell performance and durability is another aspect of the materials angle that NREL and GM will collaborate on.

The other main area is streamlining the manufacturing process for commercial scale efficiencies.

cleantechnica

[Logic]

It is wonderful that more research is being done, as it is desperately needed.
I just wish taxpayers weren't footing so much or the bill for infrastructure.

[JV153]

So we have to find another way to make hydrogen apart from using ng. Simple really.

doe.html]greencarcongress[/url]

No, it isn't. Standard electrolysis is expensive and there aren't a significant number of commercial electrolysis plants. Use of hydrogen for ammonia production would compete with use for fuel cells. The efficiency of electrolysis is poor. Transport of hydrogen is exceedingly difficult, ideally fuel cell manufacturing and hydrogen generation plants would be adjacent to each other.
PEM efficiency is about 55%, much better than a gasoline engine, but not much better than a diesel and much worse than Li-ion batteries.

[Timo]

I can easily see hydrogen FC transportation taking root for the larger transport vehicles that require the range that only on-board fuel storage can provide. Semi-trucks, trains, and even ships could be outfitted with FC tech to enable the transport of what we all need to live. Personal transport, however, there's no need to go down that route. Daily commutes simply do not require that amount of range. Drive 10 minutes to work. Plug in. Leave work. Drive to the store. Drive to the movies. Go home. Plug in. Plug-in tech is proving itself to be very economical and convenient for drivers, and the better EVs get, the bigger the hurdle FCVs will have to climb to become a viable replacement of the ICE. Elon Musk was recently quoted by Bloomberg as saying that other electric vehicle manufacturers were not his competition. The competition for Tesla is all of the other global manufacturers of ICE vehicles. Hydrogen is simply a different fuel that will have to be produced in order for FCVs to become successful. I'd prefer leaving out the middleman, and just produce my own fuel (electricity) to power my car. Heck. I could even install an FC power generator at my house to generate the electicity i need for my EV AND the rest of my house. But, as is, if hydrogen were really going to be the fuel of the future, Exxon and BP and Shell and all the other oil giants out there would be clamoring to corner the market to retain their status as kings of the fuel industry. I don't see that happening. Meanwhile, Tesla and Solar City are busy establishing their own market for independent power generation and mobility. They're light years ahead of any other car manufacturer's FCV tech, too.

[hvacman]

For serious freight transportation, I believe the harsh economics of the future will cause the rubber-tired long-haul trucking industry to eventually die out in favor of the increasingly-popular and cost-effective multi-mode rail/truck model with local freight by plug-in hybrid trucks. Rail will go to electric in many areas, which will be really easy. Diesel-locomotives already use essentially a series hybrid drive train without batteries. Add overhead wires and pickups and they are electrified.

Hydrogen only makes sense if one continues to hold sacred the 20th century transportation energy model of (relatively) high-density, quick-fill portable energy, regardless of efficiency or cost. There is a tremendous price to pay as compared to re-thinking and re-building our energy and business models to match the economic reality that electricity is a much simpler, flexible, cost-effective, and efficient universal energy currency than hydrogen for both energy production and consumption.

[Graeme]

Not so. Here's a concept prototype which clearly demonstrates that hydrogen as a fuel is a viable alternative to gasoline. Introduction of hydrogen fuel is simply a matter of time and innovation.

A Radical RXC Prototype Turns Hydrogen into 669-Horsepower

Hydrogen appears to be the fuel source of the future. It’s more efficient than gasoline, renewable, and essentially pollution-free (after it has been separated, of course). But like all technologies that haven’t been completely developed or squared away, there’s always another avenue to explore.

Cranfield University found that tangent. Students at Cranfield set to work to explore the possibility of hydrogen-powered cars in a one-make racing series. But don’t worry, were not talking about racers trundling around in plebian Toyota FCVs. The students needed an existing lightweight and aerodynamic race chassis, so the team partnered with Radical and what they have come up with is impressive.

boldride

Fortunately, the DOE is still interested in this tech.

DOE Issues Request for Information on Fuel Cells for Continuous On-Board Recharging for Battery Electric Light-Duty Vehicles

The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technologies Office has issued a request for information (RFI) seeking feedback from the research community and relevant stakeholders about fuel cell technology validation, commercial acceleration, and potential deployment strategies for continuous fuel cell rechargers on board light-duty electric vehicle fleets.

All-electric light-duty vehicles with fuel cell range extenders for commercial fleet vehicles could potentially have comparable or better performance than internal combustion engine propulsion systems or battery electric vehicles. Electric drivetrains may also be able to take advantage of the benefits of batteries for delivering power and fuel cell systems for energy storage and peak power needs.

The purpose of this RFI is to solicit feedback from industry, academia, research laboratories, government agencies, and other stakeholders on issues related to the technical and economic feasibility of commercializing fuel cell range extenders for battery electric vehicles. This RFI specifically requests technical information as well as information on vehicle makes and models that are the most feasible for an after-market modification to extend the vehicle range using a fuel cell system.

energy

[Graeme]

Japan announces roadmap for hydrogen introduction

The Hydrogen/fuel Cell Strategy Council (chaired by Tokyo Institute of Technology Prof Takao Kashiwagi), which was set up by Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), has announced the “Hydrogen/fuel Cell Strategy Roadmap.”

The roadmap describes three steps in the introduction of hydrogen-based technologies using, for example, fuel cells and sets a goal for each step.

Phase 1, which is expected to last until about 2025, is defined as a period in which the use of hydrogen will rapidly expand. The goal set by the roadmap for this phase is to increase the number of residential fuel cell units in Japan to 1.4 million in 2020 and 5.3 million in 2030 and the number of hydrogen stations for fuel cell vehicles to 100 in 2015.

Also, the council aims to commercialize a fuel cell vehicle in 2015, fuel cell bus in 2016 and commercial/industrial fuel cell system using SOFCs (solid oxide fuel cells) in 2017.

Phase 2, which is supposed to begin in the mid-2020s and end in about 2030, is defined as a period in which hydrogen-based power generation will be introduced on a full scale and large-scale hydrogen supply systems will be established.

The goal for this phase is to purchase hydrogen from foreign countries at a price of about ¥30/m3, expand the domestic hydrogen distribution network for commercial purposes, manufacture/transport/store hydrogen derived from unused energy in foreign countries on a full scale, fully utilize hydrogen for power generation business, etc.

Phase 3, which will begin from about 2040, is defined as a period for the establishment of CO2-free hydrogen supply system. The goal for this phase is to realize the full-scale production/transportation/storage of hydrogen that does not emit CO2 by collecting and storing CO2 (CCS: carbon dioxide capture and storage) and combining domestic and foreign renewable energies.

japantoday

[Graeme]

World Hydrogen Industry to Reach 290 Billion Cubic Meters by 2018 Says A New Research Report at RnRMarketResearch.com

Global consumption of merchant and captive hydrogen is forecast to increase 3.5 percent annually through 2018 to 290 billion cubic meters, driven by strong growth in petroleum hydrotreating and hydrocracking refining operations. These advances will be particularly robust in developing countries as per capita vehicle ownership rates rise, and as countries adopt and enforce more stringent emissions regulations to combat increasingly difficult air pollution problems. Merchant supply from industrial gas companies will expand rapidly as hydrogen consumption in upgraded petroleum refineries exceeds the refineries’ available captive resources.



Outside of refining, hydrogen is used in the production of many important chemicals; as well as in the metals, electronics, and thin-film solar industries; edible oil processing; and a variety of other applications. Although the chemical industry is the largest of these, more rapid growth is expected in several smaller markets. Additionally, the adoption of hydrogen energy technologies continues to proceed worldwide, and fuel cells will see greater mainstream adoption. Despite technical and other challenges, the emergence of a hydrogen market for fuel cell powered vehicles remains a possibility.

China to claim largest share of new demand growth

Although the United States will remain the world’s largest hydrogen consuming country, the greatest share of growth through 2018 is expected to occur in China. With air pollution in urban areas an increasingly pressing issue, China is expected to aggressively target motor vehicle emissions by enacting and enforcing tighter fuel sulfur regulations. This will drive hydrogen demand growth as the country’s refining industry increases its ability to produce low-sulfur fuels. Other emerging markets such as India and Russia will also seek to export ultralow- sulfur fuels, and will see among the fastest gains in hydrogen demand.

virtual-strategy